{ "name": "SpaceMiningData space resources dataset", "version": "d8d22e0172a91cff013fc82dc7f9176b8db75656fa45b2c188079c2b83841fd3", "built": "2026-09-27", "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://spaceminingdata.com/data.html", "records": [ { "stable_id": "law-artemis-accords", "name": "Artemis Accords (2020)", "summary": "Non-binding political commitments among signatory states on civil exploration of the Moon, Mars, comets and asteroids. Section 10 affirms that space resource extraction does not inherently constitute national appropriation under OST Art. II and commits signatories to inform the UN Secretary-General of extraction activities.", "status": "non_binding_in_effect", "status_basis": "Signed text states the Accords 'represent a political commitment'; NASA reports 76 signatory nations as of 25 September 2026.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf", "title": "The Artemis Accords (signed text, 13 October 2020)", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-10-13", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Signatories affirm that the extraction of space resources does not inherently constitute national appropriation under Article II of the Outer Space Treaty, and that contracts and other legal instruments relating to space resources should be consistent with that Treaty.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Section 10(2)", "page": 6 } }, { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf", "title": "The Artemis Accords - Section 10(3)", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-10-13", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Signatories commit to informing the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community of their space resource extraction activities in accordance with the Outer Space Treaty.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Section 10(3)", "page": 6 } }, { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf", "title": "The Artemis Accords - Section 1 (nature)", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-10-13", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Accords represent a political commitment to the principles described herein", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "level", "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Section 1", "page": 4 } }, { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf", "title": "The Artemis Accords - Section 13 (adoption)", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-10-13", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Adopted on October 13, 2020, in the English language.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Section 13", "page": 9 } }, { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/", "title": "Artemis Accords - NASA", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-09-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "On September 25, 2026, San Marino became the 76th nation to sign the accords.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "parties_or_signatories" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/signatories-02.pdf", "title": "Artemis Accords - List of the Signatories by Date", "publisher": "NASA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-09-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "75 Côte d'Ivoire 09/24/2026 76 San Marino 09/25/2026", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "parties_or_signatories", "history" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 4 } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Signatory count changes frequently; re-check NASA and U.S. State Department lists before publication." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [ { "field": "parties_or_signatories.count", "old": 75, "new": 76, "changed_on": "2026-09-25", "reason": "source_update", "source_index": 5 } ], "review_state": "verified", "level": "multilateral_principles", "scope": "multilateral", "jurisdiction": null, "citation": "The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes (13 October 2020)", "adopted_date": { "value": "2020-10-13", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": null, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Section 10: utilization of space resources can benefit humankind; extraction and utilization should comply with the OST; signatories affirm that extraction does not inherently constitute national appropriation under OST Art. II; signatories commit to inform the UN Secretary-General, the public and the scientific community of their extraction activities; and intend to contribute to multilateral efforts including at COPUOS.", "quote": "The Signatories affirm that the extraction of space resources does not inherently constitute national appropriation under Article II of the Outer Space Treaty, and that contracts and other legal instruments relating to space resources should be consistent with that Treaty.", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": { "count": 76, "as_of": "2026-09-25", "source": "NASA Artemis Accords page and signatory list PDF (San Marino, 76th, 25 September 2026)", "source_index": 4 }, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": true, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-hague-building-blocks-2019", "name": "Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group: Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resource Activities (2019)", "summary": "Non-binding building blocks adopted on 12 November 2019 by a multi-stakeholder working group (governments, industry, academia) to guide development of an international framework; submitted to the COPUOS Legal Subcommittee by Luxembourg and the Netherlands in 2020.", "status": "non_binding_in_effect", "status_basis": "A/AC.105/C.2/L.315 states the Working Group adopted the building blocks on 12 November 2019 and encourages their consideration pending an international framework.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/AC.105/C.2/L.315&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/L.315 - Building blocks for the development of an international framework on space resource activities (working paper submitted by Luxembourg and the Netherlands)", "publisher": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-02-03", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Working Group adopted the building blocks on 12 November 2019.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date", "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/AC.105/C.2/L.315&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/L.315 - Building block 8 (resource rights)", "publisher": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-02-03", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The international framework should ensure that resource rights over raw mineral and volatile materials extracted from space resources, as well as products derived therefrom, can lawfully be acquired through domestic legislation, bilateral agreements and/or multilateral agreements.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Building block 8.1", "page": 4 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/AC.105/C.2/L.315&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/L.315 - Building block 8.3", "publisher": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2020-02-03", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The international framework should ensure that the utilization of space resources is carried out in accordance with the principle of non -appropriation under article II OST.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Building block 8.3", "page": 4 } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Original Leiden University publication blocked this server (captcha); record relies on the UN working-paper reproduction." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "non_binding_guidance", "scope": "international", "jurisdiction": null, "citation": "Building Blocks (12 November 2019), reproduced in UN doc. A/AC.105/C.2/L.315 (3 February 2020)", "adopted_date": { "value": "2019-11-12", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": null, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Building block 8: an international framework should ensure resource rights over extracted raw mineral and volatile materials (and derived products) can lawfully be acquired through domestic legislation or bilateral/multilateral agreements, with mutual recognition between states, and consistent with OST Art. II non-appropriation. Also proposes priority rights registered in an international registry.", "quote": "The international framework should ensure that resource rights over raw mineral and volatile materials extracted from space resources, as well as products derived therefrom, can lawfully be acquired through domestic legislation, bilateral agreements and/or multilateral agreements.", "source_index": 1 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-japan-space-activities-2016", "name": "Japan: Act on Launching of Spacecraft, etc. and Control of Spacecraft (Space Activities Act, Act No. 76 of 2016)", "summary": "Japan's general space activities licensing law. Art. 20(1) requires a Prime Minister's permit for each satellite managed from ground equipment in Japan; the 2021 Space Resources Act attaches space resources business-activity plans to this permit.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Space resources permits granted in 2022 and 2024 were issued as satellite-management permits under this Act (Cabinet Office permit numbers 衛星22-019, 衛星24-025).", "sources": [ { "url": "https://laws.e-gov.go.jp/api/1/lawdata/428AC0000000076", "title": "人工衛星等の打上げ及び人工衛星の管理に関する法律（平成二十八年法律第七十六号）(e-Gov law data)", "publisher": "Digital Agency, Government of Japan (e-Gov)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2016-11-16", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "人工衛星ごとに、内閣総理大臣の許可を受けなければならない", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "ja", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "第二十条第一項 (Article 20(1))" } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Entry-into-force date(s) of the Space Activities Act not retrieved." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "JP", "citation": "平成二十八年法律第七十六号 (Act No. 76 of 2016), promulgated 16 November 2016", "adopted_date": { "value": "2016-11-16", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "promulgation date (e-Gov metadata)" }, "in_force_date": null, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "No resource-specific provision; supplies the Art. 20(1) satellite-management permit to which the Space Resources Act (Act No. 83 of 2021) attaches resource business-activity plans.", "quote": "人工衛星ごとに、内閣総理大臣の許可を受けなければならない", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-japan-space-resources-2021", "name": "Japan: Act on the Promotion of Business Activities Related to the Exploration and Development of Space Resources (Act No. 83 of 2021)", "summary": "Japanese statute that adds a space resources business-activity plan to the satellite-management permit of the Space Activities Act, requires the Prime Minister to publish permits, and provides that a permitted operator acquires ownership of resources it mines under the approved plan by possessing them with intent to own.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Cabinet Office lists two permits issued under the Act (2022-11-04 and 2024-12-17) and counts by fiscal year (FY2021: 0, FY2022: 1, FY2023: 0, FY2024: 1, FY2025: 0).", "sources": [ { "url": "https://laws.e-gov.go.jp/api/1/lawdata/503AC1000000083", "title": "宇宙資源の探査及び開発に関する事業活動の促進に関する法律（令和三年法律第八十三号）(e-Gov law data)", "publisher": "Digital Agency, Government of Japan (e-Gov)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2021-06-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "当該採掘等をした者が所有の意思をもって占有することによって、その所有権を取得する", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "ja", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "第五条 (Article 5)" } }, { "url": "https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/english/resource/documents/act83_2021.pdf", "title": "Act on the Promotion of Business Activities for Exploring and Developing Space Resources (Act No. 83 of June 23, 2021), bilingual text", "publisher": "Cabinet Office, Government of Japan (translation: Japanese Law Translation, Ministry of Justice)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2021-06-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Article 5 A person that conducts business activities related to exploring and developing space resources acquires the ownership of space resources that have been mined, etc. in accordance with the business activity plan related to the license, etc. for exploring and developing space resources, by possessing the space resources with the intention to own them.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 5", "page": 6 } }, { "url": "https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/english/resource/documents/act83_2021.pdf", "title": "Act No. 83 of 2021 - title and number", "publisher": "Cabinet Office, Government of Japan", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2021-06-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "(Act No. 83 of June 23, 2021)", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "citation", "adopted_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/english/resource/documents/act83_2021.pdf", "title": "Act No. 83 of 2021 - Supplementary Provisions Art. 1 (effective date)", "publisher": "Cabinet Office, Government of Japan", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2021-06-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Article 1 This Act comes into effect as of the day on which six months have elapsed from the date of its promulgation", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Supplementary Provisions, Article 1", "page": 7 } }, { "url": "https://laws.e-gov.go.jp/api/1/lawdata/503AC1000000083", "title": "Space Resources Act - Article 4 (publication of permits)", "publisher": "Digital Agency, Government of Japan (e-Gov)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2021-06-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "宇宙資源の探査及び開発の許可等をしたときは、その旨及び次に掲げる事項", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "ja", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "第四条 (Article 4)" } }, { "url": "https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/application/resource/application.html", "title": "宇宙資源法に関する申請受付について (applications and list of permits under the Space Resources Act)", "publisher": "Cabinet Office, National Space Policy Secretariat", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "令和3年度 0 令和4年度 1 令和5年度 0 令和6年度 1 令和7年度 0", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "ja", "translation": "none" } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "English text is an unofficial translation (Japanese Law Translation / CAO bilingual PDF); the Japanese text is authoritative." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-26", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "JP", "citation": "令和三年法律第八十三号 (Act No. 83 of 2021), promulgated 23 June 2021", "adopted_date": { "value": "2021-06-23", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "promulgation date" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2021-12-23", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "Supplementary Provisions Art. 1: six months after promulgation on 2021-06-23" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Art. 5: an operator conducting space resources business activities acquires ownership of space resources mined in accordance with the business activity plan attached to its permit, by possessing them with the intention to own. Art. 3: the permit is a Space Activities Act satellite-management permit (Art. 20(1)) with a business activity plan, granted by the Prime Minister after consulting the Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry. Art. 4: permits are published. Art. 6: the Act must not hinder performance of Japan's treaty obligations.", "quote": "Article 5 A person that conducts business activities related to exploring and developing space resources acquires the ownership of space resources that have been mined, etc. in accordance with the business activity plan related to the license, etc. for exploring and developing space resources, by possessing the space resources with the intention to own them.", "source_index": 1 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "grok-bot-executor", "reviewer_run": "research/review/proposed-japan-in-force-day-20260926.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": [ 0 ], "edits_applied": 3, "base_record_sha256": "9c3650119cd49ea48db4829698a7a55a2871ef113783a5ad6223fff03b2f57dc", "record_sha256": "5d59c785918b6b0ff4f69d710b934120a499b2ce98a7444c1e63907617b86371" } }, { "stable_id": "law-luxembourg-space-resources-2017", "name": "Luxembourg Law of 20 July 2017 on the exploration and use of space resources", "summary": "Luxembourg statute providing that space resources are capable of being owned and requiring a written mission authorisation from the ministers in charge of the economy and space activities for any commercial exploration or use of space resources by a Luxembourg-registered company.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Listed by the Luxembourg Space Agency as part of the current national legal framework; first authorisation granted under it on 22 November 2024 (see auth-luxembourg-ispace-europe-2024).", "sources": [ { "url": "https://space-agency.public.lu/en/support/industry-portal/legal-framework/law-of-july-20th-2017.html", "title": "Law of July 20th 2017 on the exploration and use of space resources (English translation)", "publisher": "Luxembourg Space Agency", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Article 1 Space resources are capable of being owned.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 1" } }, { "url": "https://space-agency.public.lu/en/support/industry-portal/legal-framework/law-of-july-20th-2017.html", "title": "Law of July 20th 2017 - Article 2(1)", "publisher": "Luxembourg Space Agency", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "No person can explore or use space resources without holding a written mission authorisation from the minister or ministers in charge of the economy and space activities", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions", "summary" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 2(1)" } }, { "url": "https://space-agency.public.lu/en/support/industry-portal/legal-framework/law-of-july-20th-2017.html", "title": "Law of July 20th 2017 - Article 3", "publisher": "Luxembourg Space Agency", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The authorisation shall be granted to an operator for a mission of exploration and use of space resources for commercial purposes upon written application to the ministers.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 3" } }, { "url": "https://space-agency.public.lu/en/support/industry-portal/legal-framework/law-of-july-20th-2017.html", "title": "Law of July 20th 2017 - translation status note", "publisher": "Luxembourg Space Agency", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "This is the English translation of the French original text.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "sources" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial" }, { "url": "https://www.arendt.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/the_space_law_review_-_edition_4_-_luxembourg.pdf", "title": "The Space Law Review, 4th edition - Luxembourg chapter (Arendt & Medernach)", "publisher": "Arendt & Medernach / Law Business Research", "source_class": "reputable_press", "published": "2024-04", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Space Resources Law entered into force on 1 August 2017.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 6 } }, { "url": "https://space-agency.public.lu/en/support/industry-portal/legal-framework.html", "title": "Legal Framework - Luxembourg Space Agency", "publisher": "Luxembourg Space Agency", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Law on Space Activities does not apply to missions involving the exploration and use of space resources falling under the Law of 20 July 2017 on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Official French text on Legilux (https://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/loi/2017/07/20/a674/jo) could not be fetched (HTTP 403 to this server); quotes rely on the Luxembourg Space Agency English translation, which states the French version prevails.", "Entry-into-force date (1 August 2017) is from a law-firm publication, not from the Journal officiel." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "LU", "citation": "Loi du 20 juillet 2017 sur l'exploration et l'utilisation des ressources de l'espace; ELI: eli/etat/leg/loi/2017/07/20/a674/jo", "adopted_date": { "value": "2017-07-20", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2017-08-01", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "secondary source (law firm); Journal officiel not retrieved" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Art. 1: space resources are capable of being owned (French original prevails). Art. 2: no person may explore or use space resources without a written mission authorisation from the ministers; Art. 3: authorisation is granted to an operator for a mission of exploration and use of space resources for commercial purposes; Art. 4: applicant must be a Luxembourg-law company or European Company with registered office in Luxembourg.", "quote": "Space resources are capable of being owned.", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": true, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-moon-agreement", "name": "Moon Agreement (1979)", "summary": "UN treaty that declares the Moon and its natural resources the common heritage of mankind, bars property rights in natural resources in place, and commits its parties to establish an international regime for exploitation when it becomes feasible. It has 17 parties, none of which is a major spacefaring state.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "UN Treaty Collection (depositary) status as at 25-09-2026 shows entry into force 11 July 1984, 17 parties and 11 signatories; Saudi Arabia's withdrawal took effect 5 January 2024.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html", "title": "Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (text) - Article 11", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1979", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 11(1)" } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html", "title": "Moon Agreement (text) - Article 11(3)", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1979", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Neither the surface nor the subsurface of the moon, nor any part thereof or natural resources in place, shall become property of any State", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 11(3)" } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html", "title": "Moon Agreement (text) - Article 11(5)", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1979", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "undertake to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation is about to become feasible", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 11(5)" } }, { "url": "https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en", "title": "UN Treaty Collection, Chapter XXIV-2: Agreement governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (status as at 25-09-2026)", "publisher": "United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Treaty Section (depositary)", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-09-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Status : Signatories : 11. Parties : 17", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "parties_or_signatories", "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en", "title": "UN Treaty Collection, Chapter XXIV-2 - note 3 (Saudi Arabia withdrawal)", "publisher": "United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Treaty Section (depositary)", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-09-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "On 5 January 2023, the Government of Saudi Arabia notified the Secretary-General of its decision to withdraw from the Agreement with effect from 5 January 2024 in accordance with article 20 of the Agreement.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "history", "parties_or_signatories" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en", "title": "UN Treaty Collection, Chapter XXIV-2 - entry into force", "publisher": "United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Treaty Section (depositary)", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-09-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Entry into force : 11 July 1984, in accordance with article 19(3).", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/unoosa/uploads/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2026/aac_105c_22026crp/aac_105c_22026crp_9rev_1_0_html/AC105_C2_2026_CRP09Rev01E.pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1 - Moon Agreement adoption", "publisher": "UNOOSA / COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-04-17", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Adoption by the General Assembly: 5 December 1979 (resolution 34/68) Opened for signature: 18 December 1979 in New York Entry into force: 11 July 1984", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date", "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 2 } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "No international exploitation regime under Art. 11(5) has been established." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [ { "field": "parties_or_signatories.count", "old": 18, "new": 17, "changed_on": "2024-01-05", "reason": "source_update", "source_index": 4 } ], "review_state": "verified", "level": "international_treaty", "scope": "international", "jurisdiction": null, "citation": "1363 UNTS 3; adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 34/68", "adopted_date": { "value": "1979-12-05", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "1984-07-11", "precision": "day" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Art. 11(1): the Moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind. Art. 11(3): natural resources in place cannot become the property of any state, organization or person. Art. 11(5): parties undertake to establish an international regime to govern exploitation 'as such exploitation is about to become feasible' (not established).", "quote": "Neither the surface nor the subsurface of the moon, nor any part thereof or natural resources in place, shall become property of any State", "source_index": 1 }, "parties_or_signatories": { "count": 17, "signatories_count_untc": 11, "signature_only_count": 4, "as_of": "2026-09-25", "source": "UN Treaty Collection XXIV-2 (Parties: 17; Signatories: 11); A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1 lists 4 signature-only states", "withdrawals": [ { "state": "Saudi Arabia", "notified": "2023-01-05", "effective": "2024-01-05" } ], "source_index": 3 }, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": true, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-outer-space-treaty", "name": "Outer Space Treaty (1967)", "summary": "UN treaty that sets the basic rules for space activities: no national appropriation of the Moon or other celestial bodies (Art. II), freedom of exploration and use (Art. I), and state responsibility for, and authorization and continuing supervision of, national activities including those of private entities (Art. VI).", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "UNOOSA status compilation (A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1) lists entry into force 10 October 1967 and 118 ratifications/accessions as at 1 January 2026.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html", "title": "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (text)", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1967", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article II" } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html", "title": "Outer Space Treaty (text) - Article VI", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1967", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions", "summary" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article VI" } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html", "title": "Outer Space Treaty (text) - Article I", "publisher": "United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "1967", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "shall be free for exploration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article I" } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/unoosa/uploads/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2026/aac_105c_22026crp/aac_105c_22026crp_9rev_1_0_html/AC105_C2_2026_CRP09Rev01E.pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1 - Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2026", "publisher": "UNOOSA / COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-04-17", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Total R 118 100 100 77 17", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "parties_or_signatories", "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 10 } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/unoosa/uploads/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2026/aac_105c_22026crp/aac_105c_22026crp_9rev_1_0_html/AC105_C2_2026_CRP09Rev01E.pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1 - entry into force of the Outer Space Treaty", "publisher": "UNOOSA / COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-04-17", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Opened for signature: 27 January 1967 in London, Moscow and Washington, D.C. Entry into force: 10 October 1967", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date", "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2025/aac_105c_22025crp/aac_105c_22025crp_9_0_html/AC105_C2_2025_CRP09E.pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2025/CRP.9 - Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2025", "publisher": "UNOOSA / COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2025", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Total R 116 100 100 76 17", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "history" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 10 } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html", "title": "Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space (depositary notifications)", "publisher": "UNOOSA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "21 October 2025: Accession of Malaysia to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "parties_or_signatories", "history" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Treaty text does not mention 'resources'; whether resource extraction is 'use' (Art. I) or 'appropriation' (Art. II) is contested and is not settled by the text itself.", "Party count after 1 January 2026: UNOOSA status page lists no depositary notifications after 21 October 2025 as of 2026-09-25; an updated compilation (as at 1 January 2027) will confirm." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [ { "field": "parties_or_signatories.count", "old": 116, "new": 118, "changed_on": "2026-01-01", "reason": "source_update", "source_index": 3 } ], "review_state": "verified", "level": "international_treaty", "scope": "international", "jurisdiction": null, "citation": "610 UNTS 205; 18 UST 2410; TIAS 6347; adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2222 (XXI)", "adopted_date": { "value": "1966-12-19", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "UN General Assembly adoption (resolution 2222 (XXI)) per UNOOSA status compilation" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "1967-10-10", "precision": "day" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "No explicit resource provision. Art. II bars national appropriation of outer space including the Moon and celestial bodies; Art. I makes outer space free for exploration and use by all States; Art. VI requires states to authorize and continually supervise non-governmental activities and makes them internationally responsible for national activities. These three articles are the basis on which national space resource laws and authorizations operate.", "quote": "Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": { "count": 118, "signature_only_count": 23, "as_of": "2026-01-01", "source": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/CRP.9/Rev.1 (Total R = 118; Total S = 23)", "source_index": 3 }, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": true, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-us-commercial-space-launch-act-chapter-509", "name": "U.S. Commercial Space Launch Activities (51 U.S.C. chapter 509) - payload review authority", "summary": "U.S. launch and reentry licensing statute administered by the FAA. Section 50904(c) is the basis for FAA payload reviews of payloads that need no other federal license; it is the mechanism used for the 2016 Moon Express MX-1E determination.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Office of the Law Revision Counsel text of 51 U.S.C. 50904 (current edition).", "sources": [ { "url": "https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title51-section50904&num=0&edition=prelim", "title": "51 U.S.C. 50904: Restrictions on launches, operations, and reentries", "publisher": "Office of the Law Revision Counsel, U.S. House of Representatives", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Secretary of Transportation shall establish whether all required licenses, authorizations, and permits required for a payload have been obtained. If no license, authorization, or permit is required, the Secretary may prevent the launch or reentry if the Secretary decides the launch or reentry would jeopardize the public health and safety, safety of property, or national security or foreign policy interest of the United States.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions", "summary" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "51 U.S.C. 50904(c)" } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "FAA implementing regulation for payload review in 2016 (14 C.F.R. part 415, since replaced by part 450) not retrieved." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "US", "citation": "51 U.S.C. 50901-50923 (chapter 509); pinpoint 51 U.S.C. 50904(c)", "adopted_date": null, "in_force_date": null, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "No resource provision. Allows the Secretary of Transportation (FAA) to review a payload that needs no other license and to prevent its launch on public safety, property, national security or foreign policy grounds; it does not authorize resource extraction or confer resource rights.", "quote": "The Secretary of Transportation shall establish whether all required licenses, authorizations, and permits required for a payload have been obtained. If no license, authorization, or permit is required, the Secretary may prevent the launch or reentry if the Secretary decides the launch or reentry would jeopardize the public health and safety, safety of property, or national security or foreign policy interest of the United States.", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-us-cslca-2015", "name": "U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015, Title IV (Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act of 2015)", "summary": "U.S. statute (Pub. L. 114-90, Title IV) providing that a U.S. citizen engaged in commercial recovery of a space resource is entitled to resources obtained, in accordance with applicable law and U.S. international obligations; it disclaims any U.S. sovereignty or ownership over celestial bodies and creates no specific licensing procedure for resource recovery.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Codified at 51 U.S.C. 51301-51303; the Office of the Law Revision Counsel page shows text in effect on September 24, 2026.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title51-section51303&num=0&edition=prelim", "title": "51 U.S.C. 51303: Asteroid resource and space resource rights", "publisher": "Office of the Law Revision Counsel, U.S. House of Representatives", "source_class": "legislation", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "A United States citizen engaged in commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource under this chapter shall be entitled to any asteroid resource or space resource obtained, including to possess, own, transport, use, and sell the asteroid resource or space resource obtained in accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of the United States.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "51 U.S.C. 51303" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ90/html/PLAW-114publ90.htm", "title": "Public Law 114-90, U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (enrolled text)", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office (govinfo)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2015-11-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "This title may be cited as the ``Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act of 2015''.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "name", "citation" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Title IV, sec. 401" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ90/html/PLAW-114publ90.htm", "title": "Public Law 114-90 - sec. 403 disclaimer of extraterritorial sovereignty", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office (govinfo)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2015-11-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "It is the sense of Congress that by the enactment of this Act, the United States does not thereby assert sovereignty or sovereign or exclusive rights or jurisdiction over, or the ownership of, any celestial body.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Title IV, sec. 403" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ90/html/PLAW-114publ90.htm", "title": "Public Law 114-90 - enactment date", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office (govinfo)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2015-11-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Approved November 25, 2015.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date", "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ90/html/PLAW-114publ90.htm", "title": "Public Law 114-90 - 51 U.S.C. 51302(a)(3)", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office (govinfo)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2015-11-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "subject to authorization and continuing supervision by the Federal Government", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "51 U.S.C. 51302(a)(3)" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-114publ90/html/PLAW-114publ90.htm", "title": "Public Law 114-90 - 51 U.S.C. 51301 definitions", "publisher": "U.S. Government Publishing Office (govinfo)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2015-11-25", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The term `space resource' means an abiotic resource in situ in outer space.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "51 U.S.C. 51301(2)" } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "The statute tasks the President to promote recovery 'subject to authorization and continuing supervision by the Federal Government' but does not itself establish a resource-recovery authorization process; no U.S. resource-specific authorization instrument has been issued as far as primary sources show." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "US", "citation": "Pub. L. 114-90, title IV, §402(a), Nov. 25, 2015, 129 Stat. 721; 51 U.S.C. 51301-51303", "adopted_date": { "value": "2015-11-25", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2015-11-25", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "enactment; no separate effective date in Title IV" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "51 U.S.C. 51303 entitles a U.S. citizen engaged in commercial recovery of an asteroid or space resource to possess, own, transport, use and sell the resource obtained, in accordance with applicable law including U.S. international obligations. 'Space resource' means an abiotic resource in situ in outer space (includes water and minerals). Sec. 403 disclaims U.S. sovereignty, exclusive rights, jurisdiction or ownership over any celestial body.", "quote": "A United States citizen engaged in commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource under this chapter shall be entitled to any asteroid resource or space resource obtained, including to possess, own, transport, use, and sell the asteroid resource or space resource obtained in accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of the United States.", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-us-eo-13914", "name": "U.S. Executive Order 13914 (6 April 2020): Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources", "summary": "Presidential executive order stating U.S. policy that Americans should have the right to engage in commercial exploration, recovery and use of space resources consistent with applicable law, that the U.S. does not view outer space as a global commons, and that the U.S. is not a party to and will object to treating the Moon Agreement as customary international law.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Published at 85 FR 20381 (10 April 2020). No revocation found: the later space executive order EO 14369 (18 Dec 2025, 90 FR 60537) was checked and does not mention EO 13914.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-04-10/html/2020-07800.htm", "title": "Executive Order 13914 of April 6, 2020 - Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources (85 FR 20381)", "publisher": "Federal Register / U.S. Government Publishing Office", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2020-04-10", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Outer space is a legally and physically unique domain of human activity, and the United States does not view it as a global commons.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Sec. 1" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-04-10/html/2020-07800.htm", "title": "Executive Order 13914 - Sec. 1", "publisher": "Federal Register / U.S. Government Publishing Office", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2020-04-10", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Americans should have the right to engage in commercial exploration, recovery, and use of resources in outer space, consistent with applicable law.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Sec. 1" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-04-10/html/2020-07800.htm", "title": "Executive Order 13914 - Sec. 2 (Moon Agreement)", "publisher": "Federal Register / U.S. Government Publishing Office", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2020-04-10", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "the Secretary of State shall object to any attempt by any other state or international organization to treat the Moon Agreement as reflecting or otherwise expressing customary international law", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Sec. 2" } }, { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-04-10/html/2020-07800.htm", "title": "Executive Order 13914 - signature and publication", "publisher": "Federal Register / U.S. Government Publishing Office", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2020-04-10", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Executive Order 13914 of April 6, 2020 Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "adopted_date", "citation" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2025/12/23/2025-23845.txt", "title": "Executive Order 14369 - Ensuring American Space Superiority (90 FR 60537), checked for revocation of EO 13914", "publisher": "Federal Register", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2025-12-23", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "lay the foundations for lunar economic development", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Sec. 2(a)(i)" } } ], "confidence": "medium", "missing_evidence": [ "No official disposition table entry was retrieved confirming EO 13914 remains unrevoked as of 2026-09-25; status rests on absence of revocation in the later space orders checked (EO 14335, EO 14369)." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "executive_instrument", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "US", "citation": "Executive Order 13914 of April 6, 2020, 85 FR 20381 (April 10, 2020)", "adopted_date": { "value": "2020-04-06", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2020-04-06", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "effective on signature" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Policy statement, not a grant of rights: Americans should have the right to commercially explore, recover and use space resources consistent with applicable law; outer space is not viewed as a global commons; the State Department is to object to treating the Moon Agreement as customary international law and to seek joint statements and bilateral/multilateral arrangements on safe and sustainable recovery.", "quote": "Americans should have the right to engage in commercial exploration, recovery, and use of resources in outer space, consistent with applicable law.", "source_index": 1 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-us-eo-14335-2025", "name": "U.S. Executive Order 14335 (13 August 2025): Enabling Competition in the Commercial Space Industry - Sec. 5 novel space activity authorization", "summary": "Executive order directing the Secretary of Commerce to propose an individualized mission authorization process for activities covered by OST Art. VI that no existing U.S. regulatory framework clearly governs. The Office of Space Commerce opened a voluntary, non-binding 'Space Commerce Certification' pilot in August 2026. Neither mentions space resources expressly.", "status": "in_force", "status_basis": "Published at 90 FR 40219; implementing pilot notice at 91 FR 53849 (20 August 2026) states a pilot certification has no direct legal effect.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2025/08/19/2025-15822.txt", "title": "Executive Order 14335 - Enabling Competition in the Commercial Space Industry (90 FR 40219)", "publisher": "Federal Register", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2025-08-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "the Secretary of Commerce shall propose a process for individualized mission authorizations for activities that are covered by Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, but not clearly or straightforwardly governed by existing regulatory frameworks", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Sec. 5" } }, { "url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2026/08/20/2026-17016.txt", "title": "Notice of Mission Authorization Pilot Program (91 FR 53849)", "publisher": "Office of Space Commerce, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce (Federal Register)", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-08-20", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Grant of an SCC during this pilot phase, on its own, will have no direct legal effect.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/full_text/text/2026/08/20/2026-17016.txt", "title": "Notice of Mission Authorization Pilot Program - deadline", "publisher": "Office of Space Commerce, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce (Federal Register)", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-08-20", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Space operators interested in participating in the SCC framework pilot program must submit expressions of interest no later than October 5, 2026.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Whether space resource extraction missions will be treated as 'novel' activities under this process is not stated in either document." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "executive_instrument", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "US", "citation": "Executive Order 14335 of August 13, 2025, 90 FR 40219 (August 19, 2025); OSC notice 91 FR 53849 (August 20, 2026)", "adopted_date": { "value": "2025-08-13", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2025-08-13", "precision": "day", "basis": "actual", "note": "effective on signature" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "No express resource provision. Relevant because the United States still has no statutory mission authorization process for novel in-space activities such as resource extraction; Sec. 5 directs one to be proposed, and the 2026 pilot is voluntary and without direct legal effect.", "quote": "the Secretary of Commerce shall propose a process for individualized mission authorizations for activities that are covered by Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, but not clearly or straightforwardly governed by existing regulatory frameworks", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } }, { "stable_id": "law-uae-space-sector-2019", "name": "UAE Federal Law No. 12 of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector (space resources provisions)", "summary": "UAE federal space law that brought space resource exploration, extraction, exploitation and use within its permitting regime (Art. 18) and left the conditions to a Council of Ministers decision; permits were granted by the UAE Space Agency board. It was repealed in 2023 by Federal Decree-Law No. 46 of 2023, whose Art. 8 carries the same space resources permit provision. A 2023 Cabinet Decision (Space Resource Regulation) was issued under Art. 18 before the repeal.", "status": "repealed", "status_basis": "Repealed by Art. 39(1) of Federal Decree-Law No. 46 of 2023 on the Regulation of the Space Sector (Official Gazette No. 760, 29 September 2023; effective 29 October 2023). The 2019 law was issued 19 December 2019 and entered into force one month after Official Gazette publication (Art. 54).", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.moj.gov.ae/assets/2020/Federal%20Law%20No%2012%20of%202019%20on%20THE%20REGULATION%20OF%20THE%20SPACE%20SECTOR.pdf.aspx", "title": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector (English text)", "publisher": "UAE Ministry of Justice", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2019-12-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Article 18 - Exploration, Exploitation and Use of Space Resources 1- Subject to the provisions of Article (14) of this Law, the conditions and controls relating to Permits for the exploration, exploitation and use of Space Resources, including their acquisition, purchase, sale, trade, transportation, storage and any Space Activities aimed at providing logistical services in this regard shall be determined by a decision issued by the Council of Ministers or whomever it delegates.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 18(1)", "page": 7 } }, { "url": "https://www.moj.gov.ae/assets/2020/Federal%20Law%20No%2012%20of%202019%20on%20THE%20REGULATION%20OF%20THE%20SPACE%20SECTOR.pdf.aspx", "title": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 - Article 18(2)", "publisher": "UAE Ministry of Justice", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2019-12-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Permits referred to in clause (1) of this Article shall be granted by a decision of the Board of Directors upon the proposal of the Director General.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 18(2)", "page": 7 } }, { "url": "https://www.moj.gov.ae/assets/2020/Federal%20Law%20No%2012%20of%202019%20on%20THE%20REGULATION%20OF%20THE%20SPACE%20SECTOR.pdf.aspx", "title": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 - definition of Space Resources", "publisher": "UAE Ministry of Justice", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2019-12-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Space Resources: Any non-living resources present in outer space, including minerals and water.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 1", "page": 2 } }, { "url": "https://www.moj.gov.ae/assets/2020/Federal%20Law%20No%2012%20of%202019%20on%20THE%20REGULATION%20OF%20THE%20SPACE%20SECTOR.pdf.aspx", "title": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 - Article 54 and promulgation", "publisher": "UAE Ministry of Justice", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2019-12-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "This Law shall be published in the Official Gazette and shall enter into force one month after the date of its publication.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "in_force_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 54", "page": 14 } }, { "url": "https://www.moj.gov.ae/assets/2020/Federal%20Law%20No%2012%20of%202019%20on%20THE%20REGULATION%20OF%20THE%20SPACE%20SECTOR.pdf.aspx", "title": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 - Official Gazette reference", "publisher": "UAE Ministry of Justice", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2019-12-19", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The present Federal Law was published in the Official Gazette, issue No. 669 p. 111.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "citation" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 14 } }, { "url": "https://www.wfw.com/articles/key-features-of-the-new-united-arab-emirates-regulations-on-space-activities/", "title": "Key features of the new United Arab Emirates regulations on space activities", "publisher": "Watson Farley & Williams", "source_class": "reputable_press", "published": "2023", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Cabinet Decision No. 19/2023 (the \"Space Resource Regulation\") allows for the exploration, exploitation and use of space resources as part of a Space Resource Activity. It further specifies that operators are entitled to exercise ownership rights recognised under the UAE's laws over space resources the operator explores, exploits or uses through authorised Space Resource Activities.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://web.archive.org/web/20250415081420/https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2129", "title": "Federal Decree by Law No. (46) of 2023 Concerning the Regulation of the Space Sector (UAE Legislation portal, archived copy of 15 April 2025)", "publisher": "UAE Legislation portal (via Internet Archive)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2023-09-29", "accessed": "2026-09-26", "quote": "The aforementioned Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 concerning the Space Sector shall be repealed", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status", "status_basis" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 39(1)", "page": null } }, { "url": "https://web.archive.org/web/20250415081420/https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2129", "title": "Federal Decree by Law No. (46) of 2023 Concerning the Regulation of the Space Sector (UAE Legislation portal, archived copy of 15 April 2025)", "publisher": "UAE Legislation portal (via Internet Archive)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2023-09-29", "accessed": "2026-09-26", "quote": "The conditions and controls relating to Permits for the exploration, exploitation and use of Space Resources, including their acquisition, purchase, sale, trade, transportation, storage and any Space Activities aimed at providing logistical services in this regard shall be determined by a resolution issued by the Cabinet or whomever it delegates.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": "Article 8(1)", "page": null } }, { "url": "https://web.archive.org/web/20250415081420/https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2129", "title": "Federal Decree by Law No. (46) of 2023 Concerning the Regulation of the Space Sector (UAE Legislation portal, archived copy of 15 April 2025)", "publisher": "UAE Legislation portal (via Internet Archive)", "source_class": "legislation", "published": "2023-09-29", "accessed": "2026-09-26", "quote": "Effective Date 29 Oct 2023 Official Gazette Date 29 Sep 2023 Official Gazette No 760", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status_basis" ], "language": "en", "translation": "unofficial", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": null } } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "Official Arabic text and the 2019 law's Official Gazette publication date not retrieved; uaelegislation.gov.ae and space.gov.ae blocked this server (Cloudflare). The 2023 Decree-Law was read from an April 2025 Internet Archive copy of the UAE Legislation portal.", "Text of Cabinet Decision No. 19/2023 (Space Resource Regulation) not retrieved from a government source (UAE Space Agency copy at https://space.gov.ae/assets/download/32aeae9f/SpaceResources-EN.pdf.aspx returned a Cloudflare challenge/403); ownership language is from a law-firm summary. Whether it has since been replaced under the 2023 Decree-Law was not confirmed.", "No UAE space resources permit has been identified in any primary source." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-26", "history": [ { "field": "status", "old": "in_force", "new": "repealed", "changed_on": "2026-09-26", "reason": "correction", "source_index": 6 } ], "review_state": "verified", "level": "national_statute", "scope": "national", "jurisdiction": "AE", "citation": "Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 on the Regulation of the Space Sector, issued 19 December 2019 (22 Rabi' Al-Akhar 1441H); Official Gazette issue No. 669, p. 111", "adopted_date": { "value": "2019-12-19", "precision": "day" }, "in_force_date": { "value": "2020-01", "precision": "month", "basis": "actual", "note": "derived: one month after Official Gazette publication (Art. 54); publication day not confirmed from a government source" }, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Art. 18 subjected exploration, exploitation and use of space resources (including acquisition, purchase, sale, trade, transport and storage) to permits whose conditions are set by Council of Ministers decision and which are granted by the Agency's Board; Art. 8 of the 2023 Decree-Law that replaced it carries the same permit provision in near-identical wording. Neither law itself states an ownership rule; per a law-firm summary, Cabinet Decision No. 19/2023 provides that operators may exercise ownership rights recognised under UAE law over resources obtained through authorised activities.", "quote": "the conditions and controls relating to Permits for the exploration, exploitation and use of Space Resources, including their acquisition, purchase, sale, trade, transportation, storage", "source_index": 0 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-fable-5-1", "reviewer_run": "research/review/fable-uae-repeal-correction-20260926.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": [ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ], "edits_applied": 2, "base_record_sha256": "bd6bd4ec8519d1f2f834a75f9cf3e2dedd7c6bc36a9a5b5a36a894b7cf30be5f", "record_sha256": "3c8d002f4eb0cfc527aa5e4b92239d028624fa4f3c8653e9a63d99801bb70a7b" } }, { "stable_id": "law-copuos-space-resources-working-group", "name": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities (draft initial recommended principles)", "summary": "Intergovernmental working group of the UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee mandated to develop a set of initial recommended principles for space resource activities. As of September 2026 it has produced only drafts: a consolidated draft set of non-binding principles was issued in July 2026; nothing has been adopted by COPUOS or the General Assembly.", "status": "proposed", "status_basis": "COPUOS report A/81/20 (June 2026 session) records that a consolidated draft would be prepared and the WG reconvened in 2027 under its 2023-2027 workplan; the UNOOSA WG page lists the 'Consolidated Draft Set of Initial Recommended Principles' dated July 2026. The workplan targets finalization for consensus agreement in 2027.", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html", "title": "Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities", "publisher": "UNOOSA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Develop a set of initial recommended principles for such activities, taking into account the need to ensure that they are carried out in accordance with international law and in a safe, sustainable, rational and peaceful manner, for the consideration of and consensus agreement by the Committee, followed by possible adoption by the General Assembly as a dedicated resolution or other action", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary", "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html", "title": "Working Group page - consolidated draft listing", "publisher": "UNOOSA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Consolidated Draft Set of Initial Recommended Principles for Space Resource Activities July 2026", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html", "title": "Working Group page - 2027 workplan", "publisher": "UNOOSA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "2027: (a) Finalization of a set of initial recommended principles for such activities for the consideration of and consensus agreement by the Committee", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status", "missing_evidence" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/unoosa/uploads/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/space-resources/Consolidated_draft_set_of_initial_recommended_principles_to_be_circulated.pdf", "title": "Consolidated draft set of initial recommended principles for space resource activities (July 2026)", "publisher": "UNOOSA / Chair and Vice-Chair of the Working Group", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-07", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Recognizing that these Principles are non-binding and do not create new legal rights or obligations", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions", "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/unoosa/uploads/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/space-resources/Consolidated_draft_set_of_initial_recommended_principles_to_be_circulated.pdf", "title": "Consolidated draft - Principle 2(D)", "publisher": "UNOOSA / Chair and Vice-Chair of the Working Group", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-07", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The extraction of space resources in compliance with the Outer Space Treaty does not inherently constitute national appropriation of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "resource_provisions" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "Draft Principle 2(D)", "page": 3 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/AC.105/C.2/2026/SRA/L.1/Add.1&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/SRA/L.1/Add.1 - Report of the Chair and Vice-Chair of the Working Group (continued), 20 April 2026", "publisher": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-04-20", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "The Working Group agreed to continue its work on the development of the draft set of initial recommended principles for space resource activities, while striving to achieve a greater common understanding and identifying areas of convergence.", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/AC.105/C.2/2026/SRA/L.1&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/AC.105/C.2/2026/SRA/L.1 - Report of the Chair and Vice-Chair of the Working Group, 15 April 2026", "publisher": "UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-04-15", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "reconvened the Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, with Steven Freeland (Australia) as Chair and Ayman Mahmoud Mohamed Ahmed (Egypt) as Vice-Chair", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": null, "page": 1 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/81/20&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/81/20 - Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, sixty-ninth session (10-18 June 2026)", "publisher": "United Nations General Assembly", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-08-06", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "the Committee noted that a consolidated draft set of initial recommended principles for space resource activities would be prepared by the Chair and the Vice-Chair of the Working Group", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "status" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "para. 100", "page": 21 } }, { "url": "https://documents.un.org/api/symbol/access?s=A/81/20&l=en&t=pdf", "title": "A/81/20 - para. 99 (workplan period)", "publisher": "United Nations General Assembly", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": "2026-08-06", "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "under the five-year workplan of the Working Group for the period 2023-2027", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "summary" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none", "quote_locator": { "article": "para. 99", "page": 21 } }, { "url": "https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html", "title": "Working Group page - mandate reference", "publisher": "UNOOSA", "source_class": "government_primary", "published": null, "accessed": "2026-09-25", "quote": "Mandate, terms of reference, and workplan and methods of work of the Working Group ( A/76/20 , Annex III)", "quote_confirmed_raw": true, "supports": [ "citation", "adopted_date" ], "language": "en", "translation": "none" } ], "confidence": "high", "missing_evidence": [ "The draft principles are subject to change; no text has been agreed by consensus, adopted by COPUOS, or endorsed by the General Assembly.", "Exact date the working group was first established (Legal Subcommittee 2021 session; mandate in A/76/20 annex III) not confirmed from the report text itself." ], "last_checked": "2026-09-25", "history": [], "review_state": "verified", "level": "non_binding_guidance", "scope": "international", "jurisdiction": null, "citation": "Mandate and terms of reference: A/76/20, annex III; five-year workplan: A/AC.105/1260, annex II, appendix; 2026 reports: A/AC.105/C.2/2026/SRA/L.1 and Add.1; A/81/20 paras. 98-100", "adopted_date": { "value": "2021", "precision": "year", "basis": "actual", "note": "mandate contained in COPUOS 2021 report A/76/20, annex III" }, "in_force_date": null, "resource_provisions": { "paraphrase": "Draft only (July 2026 consolidated draft): would affirm that the international space law regime applies to space resource activities, that the principles are non-binding and create no new rights or obligations, that nothing authorizes national appropriation, and (draft Principle 2(D)) that extraction in compliance with the OST 'does not inherently constitute national appropriation'. These are proposals under negotiation, not adopted text.", "quote": "Recognizing that these Principles are non-binding and do not create new legal rights or obligations", "source_index": 3 }, "parties_or_signatories": null, "outputs": [ { "output": "Initial draft set of recommended principles (Note by the Vice-Chair, A/AC.105/C.2/L.339)", "date": { "value": "2025-03-27", "precision": "day" }, "status": "draft" }, { "output": "Updated drafts by the Chair and Vice-Chair (versions dated 7 July 2025 through 28 April 2026)", "date": { "value": "2026-04-28", "precision": "day" }, "status": "draft" }, { "output": "Consolidated Draft Set of Initial Recommended Principles for Space Resource Activities", "date": { "value": "2026-07", "precision": "month" }, "status": "draft, circulated to States members" } ], "outputs_as_of": "2026-09-25", "review": { "author_model": "claude-opus-5-5", "reviewer_model": "claude-sonnet-5", "reviewer_run": "research/review/legal-and-authorizations.json", "date": "2026-09-26", "sources_reopened": false, "edits_applied": 0 } } ] }